Vitamin K plays an essential role in hemostasis (blood clotting) and is involved in bone metabolism. It is also claimed to have anti-cancer effects, prevent cardiovascular events and control type 2 diabetes. Deficiency may occur with inadequate dietary intake, malabsorption syndrome and chronic liver disease. Deficiency may cause osteoporosis (with an increased risk of fractures) and hemorrhaging (easy bleeding under the skin, from the stomach and intestines, the nose, urinary bladder and uterus). Vitamin K1 (also known as phylloquinone) is the principal dietary source of vitamin K and its predominant circulating form. It is found in green leafy vegetables, and vegetable oils. Vitamin K2 (or menaquinones) is another form of vitamin K, and is found in chicken egg yolk, butter and certain cheeses. Vitamin K2 is also produced by the bacteria in our intestines. Recommended daily allowance is 5-80 micrograms/day based on age(For more detailed information, please visit ISM’s searchable database: Nutraceutical Search.)
OBJECTIVE To investigate whether dietary phylloquinone and menaquinones intakes are related to risk of type 2 diabetes……….
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS We used data from a prospective cohort study in 38,094 Dutch men and women, aged 20–70 years………
CONCLUSIONS This study shows that both phylloquinone and menaquinones intakes may be associated with a reduced risk of type 2 diabetes.
o Beulens, JWJ et al (2010). Dietary Phylloquinone and Menaquinones Intakes and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes. Diabetes Care, 33(8), 1699-1705.
Vitamin K is a nutrient originally identified as an essential factor for blood coagulation. Accumulated evidence indicates that subclinical non-hemostatic vitamin K deficiency in extrahepatic tissues, particularly in bone, exists widely in the otherwise healthy adult population. Both vitamin K1 and K2 have been shown to exert protective effects against osteoporosis.
o Kaneki, M (2008). Genomic approaches to bone and joint diseases. New insights into molecular mechanisms underlying protective effects of vitamin K on bone health. Clin Calcium, 18(2):224-32.
OBJECTIVE—Vitamin K has a potentially beneficial role in insulin resistance, but evidence is limited in humans. We tested the hypothesis that vitamin K supplementation for 36 months will improve insulin resistance in older men and women………. CONCLUSIONS—Vitamin K supplementation for 36 months at doses attainable in the diet may reduce progression of insulin resistance in older men.
o Yoshida, M et al (2008). Effect of Vitamin K Supplementation on Insulin Resistance in Older Men and Women. Diabetes Care, 31(11), 2092-6.
Background: Limited evidence suggests that vitamin K may have a beneficial role in glucose homeostasis. No observational data exist on the associations between vitamin K intake and insulin sensitivity………Objective: We aimed to examine associations between vitamin K intake and measures of insulin sensitivity and glycemic status in men and women aged 26–81 y……. Conclusion: Our findings support a potential beneficial role for phylloquinone in glucose homeostasis in men and women.
o Yoshida, M, Booth, SL, Meigs, JB, Saltzman, E & Jacques, PF (2008). Phylloquinone intake, insulin sensitivity, and glycemic status in men and women. Am J Clin Nutr. 88(1), 210-15.
Vitamin K is essential for the activation of vitamin K-dependent proteins, which are involved not only in blood coagulation but in bone metabolism and the inhibition of arterial calcification……..Numerous studies have demonstrated the importance of vitamin K in bone health……..Several epidemiologic and intervention studies have found that vitamin K deficiency causes reductions in bone mineral density and increases the risk of fractures……..The results of two dose-response studies have indicated that the amount of vitamin K needed……..is significantly higher than what is provided through diet alone and that current dosage recommendations should be increased to optimize bone mineralization.
o Adams, J & Pepping, J (2005). Vitamin K in the treatment and prevention of osteoporosis and arterial calcification. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 62(15), 1574-81.
Background: Low dietary vitamin K intake has been associated with an increased risk of hip fracture in men and women……. Conclusions: Low dietary vitamin K intake was associated with low BMD [bone mineral density] in women consistent with previous reports that low dietary vitamin K intake is associated with an increased risk of hip fracture. In contrast, there was no association between dietary vitamin K intake and BMD in men.
o Booth, SL et al (2003). Vitamin K intake and bone mineral density in women and men. Am J Clin Nutr. 77, (2), 512-6.
Objective: On the basis of the growth inhibitory effects of vitamin K as observed in a variety of cancer cell lines, we hypothesized that dietary intake of phylloquinone (vitamin K1) and menaquinones (vitamin K2) may be associated with overall cancer incidence and mortality……… Conclusion: These findings suggest that dietary intake of menaquinones, which is highly determined by the consumption of cheese, is associated with a reduced risk of incident and fatal cancer.
o Nimptsch, K, Rohrmann, S, Kaaks, R & Linseisen, J (2010). Dietary vitamin K intake in relation to cancer incidence and mortality: results from the Heidelberg cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC-Heidelberg). Am J Clin Nutr. 91(5), 1348-58.
Vitamin K, an essential nutrient often associated with the clotting cascade, has been the focus of considerable research demonstrating an anticancer potential. Much of this research has focused on vitamin K3, although vitamins K2 and K1 have also been shown to have anticancer effects.
o Lamson, DW & Plaza, SM (2003). The anticancer effects of vitamin K. Altern Med Rev. 8(3), 303-18.
In patients with viral-induced liver cirrhosis, less than 10% of those patients who took vitamin K2 developed liver cancer, compared to 47% in patients who did not take the supplement.
News Release: Protection against arterial calcification, bone loss, cancer and aging! LifeExtension January 2009.
Although a number of studies have shown that vitamin K possesses antitumor activities on various neoplastic cell lines, there are few reports demonstrating in vivo [within the living organism] antitumor effects of vitamin K, and the antitumor effect on colorectal cancer (CRC) remains to be examined. Therefore, antitumor effects of vitamin K on CRC were examined both in vitro [in an artificial environment] and in vivo …….. These results suggest that vitamins K2, K3 and K5 exerted effective antitumor effects on CRC……..suggesting that these K vitamins may be promising agents for the treatment of patients with CRC.
o Ogawa, M et al (2007). Vitamins K2, K3 and K5 exert antitumor effects on established colorectal cancer in mice by inducing apoptotic death of tumor cells. J Int Oncol. 31(2), 323-31.
On the basis of reports of the antitumor effects of vitamin K on various cancers, we clinically investigated the suppressive effects of vitamin K2 on tumor recurrence after curative treatment for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Our results showed that vitamin K2 administration significantly suppressed HCC recurrence.
o Mizuta T & Ozaki I (2008). Hepatocellular carcinoma and vitamin K. Vitam Horm. 78, 435-42.
Despite recent progress in diagnosis and therapy, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains among the cancers with the poorest prognoses. Vitamin K has been shown to suppress the growth of HCC cells. Long-term administration of Vitamin K2 has established its clinical safety, but it does not appear to exhibit marked anti-tumor effects when administered alone. For more effective use of Vitamin K against HCC, co-administration of Vitamin K2 with other proven anticancer agents or development of a new Vitamin K preparation with a modified side-chain should be investigated in the future.
o Mizuta T & Ozaki I (2007). Clinical application of vitamin K for hepatocellular carcinoma. Clin Calcium, 17(11), 1693-9.
BACKGROUND: Despite the progression of therapeutic approaches, a high frequency of recurrence is what determines the long-term prognosis of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). In this study, the chemopreventive effects of vitamin K2 on the recurrence and survival of patients with HCC after curative therapy were evaluated………..
CONCLUSIONS: Vitamin K2 may have a suppressive effect on the recurrence of HCC and a beneficial effect on tumor recurrence. However, there was no significant difference in the survival rates. The chemopreventive effects of vitamin K2 are not sufficient. The development of a further regimen such as combination therapy is required.
o Kakizaki, S et al (2007). Preventive effects of vitamin K on recurrent disease in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma arising from hepatitis C viral infection. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 22(4), 518-22.
BACKGROUND/AIMS: Vitamin K2 appears to have a potent inhibitory activity for cell growth including HCC [hepatocellular carcinoma] cells. We investigated whether Vitamin K2 could reduce incidence of tumor recurrence after treatment of HCC………CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that Vitamin K2 does not appear to prevent recurrence of HCC after curative treatment. Our study is preliminary and large-scale trials are needed to determine whether Vitamin K2 is of benefit to decrease the recurrence of HCC.
o Hotta, N et al (2007). Effect of vitamin K2 on the recurrence in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatogastroenterology, 54(79):2073-7.
PURPOSE: Menatetrenone, a vitamin K2 analogue, plays an important role in the production of blood coagulation factors. Menatetrenone has also bee shown to have antineoplastic effects against several cancer cell lines including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells………….
CONCLUSION: Vitamin K2 inhibits the growth of HCC cells………..and might therefore be useful for treatment of HCC.
o Ozaki, I et al (2007). Menatetrenone, a vitamin K2 analogue, inhibits hepatocellular carcinoma cell growth by suppressing cyclin D1 expression through inhibition of nuclear factor kappaB activation. Clin Cancer Res. 13(7):2236-45.
BACKGROUND: The high recurrence rate of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) determines the long-term prognosis for patients with HCC. In the current study, the authors tested the effects of menatetrenone, a vitamin K2 analog, on recurrent HCC and survival after curative treatment……….
CONCLUSIONS: The current study findings suggested that menatetrenone may have a suppressive effect on recurrence of HCC and a beneficial effect on survival.
o Mizuta, T et al (2006). The effect of menatetrenone, a vitamin K2 analog, on disease recurrence and survival in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma after curative treatment: a pilot study. Cancer, 106(4):867-72.
A number of studies have shown that various K vitamins, specifically vitamins K2 and K3 [menadione – synthetic vitamin K] possess anti-tumor activity on various types of rodent- and human-derived neoplastic cell lines. In the present study, we examined the antitumor effects of vitamins K1, K2 and K3 on……human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells in vitro [in an artificial environment] and in vivo [within the living organism]…….. The results indicate that vitamins K2 and K3 may be useful agents for the treatment of patients with HCC [hepatocellular carcinoma, or liver cancer].
o Misuzu, H et al (2005). Antitumor effects of vitamins K1, K2 and K3 on hepatocellular carcinoma in vitro and in vivo. Int J Oncol. 26(3), 713-20.
o Kuriyama, S et al (2005). Vitamins K2, K3 and K5 exert in vivo antitumor effects on hepatocellular carcinoma by regulating the expression of G1 phase-related cell cycle molecules. J Int Oncol. 27(2), 505-11.
Context Previous findings indicate that vitamin K2 (menaquinone) may play a role in controlling cell growth………
Objective To determine whether vitamin K2 has preventive effects on the development of hepatocellular carcinoma in women with viral cirrhosis of the liver……….
Conclusion There is a possible role for vitamin K2 in the prevention of hepatocellular carcinoma in women with viral cirrhosis.
o Habu, D et al (2004). Role of Vitamin K2 in the Development of Hepatocellular Carcinoma in Women With Viral Cirrhosis of the Liver. JAMA. 292(3), 358-61.
Background: Anti-carcinogenic activities of vitamin K have been observed in various cancer cell lines, including prostate cancer cells……….
Objective: We evaluated the association between dietary intake of phylloquinone (vitamin K1) and menaquinones (vitamin K2) and total and advanced prostate cancer……..
Conclusions: Our results suggest an inverse association between the intake of menaquinones, but not that of phylloquinone, and prostate cancer.
o Nimptsch, K, Rohrmann, S & Linseisen, J (2008). Dietary intake of vitamin K and risk of prostate cancer in the Heidelberg cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC-Heidelberg). Am J Clin Nutr. 87(4), 985-92.
An improved vitamin K2 status may reduce the risk of prostate cancer. The potential benefits of K2 were more pronounced for advanced prostate cancer. o Nimptsch, K, Rohrmann, S, Nieters, A, & Linseisen, J (2009). Serum undercarboxylated osteocalcin as biomarker of vitamin K intake and risk of prostate cancer: a nested case-control study in the Heidelberg cohort of the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition.
Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention, 18(1), 49-56.
In a study of 11,319 men followed for 8.6 years, those who consumed a higher daily intake of vitamin K2 had a 63% reduction in the incidence of advanced prostate cancer.
News Release: Protection against arterial calcification, bone loss, cancer and aging! LifeExtension January 2009.
An increased intake of vitamin K2 (but not K1) may reduce the risk of prostate cancer by 35 per cent .
Nimptsch, K, Rohrmann, S, & Linseisen , J (2008). Dietary intake of vitamin K and risk of prostate cancer in the Heidelberg cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC-Heidelberg). [Am J Clin Nutr, 87(4), 985-92.]
Background: Coronary artery calcification (CAC) is an independent predictor of cardiovascular disease. A preventive role for vitamin K in CAC progression has been proposed……….Objective: The objective was to determine the effect of phylloquinone (vitamin K1) supplementation on CAC progression in older men and women………..Phylloquinone supplementation slows the progression of CAC in healthy older adults with preexisting CAC.
o Shea, MK et al (2009). Vitamin K supplementation and progression of coronary artery calcium in older men and women. Am J Clin Nutr. 89(6), 1799-1807.
BACKGROUND AND AIM: Vitamin K dependent proteins have been demonstrated to inhibit vascular calcification………To examine the relationship between dietary vitamins K(1) and K(2) intake, and its subtypes, and the incidence of CHD (coronary heart disease)………. CONCLUSIONS: A high intake of menaquinones could protect against CHD.
o Gast, GC et al (2009). A high menaquinone intake reduces the incidence of coronary heart disease. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 19(7), 504-10.
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