Flax Seed Oil
Flax has been known since antiquity as an herb useful to man. It contains high amounts of omega-3 fatty acid (please see Essential Fatty Acids for more information on omega-3). Omega-3 fatty acids have been reported to reduce risk factors associated with cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and cancer, besides being useful in the management of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Although both flaxseed and its derivative, flaxseed oil, are rich sources of omega-3 fatty acid, flaxseed oil is a more concentrated source. (For more detailed information, please visit ISM’s searchable database: Nutraceutical Search.)
Purpose: Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a potent stimulator of angiogenesis, which is crucial in cancer progression. We have previously shown that estradiol (E2) increases VEGF in breast cancer. Phytoestrogens are potential compounds in breast cancer prevention and treatment by poorly understood mechanisms. The main phytoestrogens in Western diet are lignans, and flaxseed is a rich source of the mammalian lignans enterodiol and enterolactone………..Conclusions: Our results suggest that flaxseed and its lignans have potent antiestrogenic effects on estrogen receptor–positive breast cancer and may prove to be beneficial in breast cancer prevention strategies in the future.
o Bergman Jurgenstrom, M, Thompson, LU, & Dabrosin, C (2007). Flaxseed and its lignans inhibit estradiol-induced growth, angiogenesis, and secretion of vascular endothelial growth factor in human breast cancer xenografts in vivo. Clin Cancer Res. 13(3), 1061-7.Purpose: Flaxseed, the richest source of mammalian lignan precursors, has previously been shown to reduce the growth of tumors in rats. This study examined, in a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial, the effects of dietary flaxseed on tumor biological markers and urinary lignan excretion in postmenopausal patients with newly diagnosed breast cancer………. Conclusion: Dietary flaxseed has the potential to reduce tumor growth in patients with breast cancer.
o Thompson, LU, Chen, JM, Li, T, Strasser-Weippl, K, & Goss, PE (2005). Dietary flaxseed alters tumor biological markers in postmenopausal breast cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 11(10), 3828-35.Angiogenesis is important in tumor growth, progression and metastatic dissemination. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is one key factor in promotion of breast cancer angiogenesis. VEGFs are bioactive in the extracellular space where they become available to the endothelial cells. Phytoestrogens such as lignans have been shown to alter breast cancer incidence and be cancer-protective in rats. We show that supplementation of 10% flaxseed, the richest source of mammalian lignans, to nude mice with established human breast tumors reduced tumor growth and metastasis. Moreover, flaxseed decreased extracellular levels of VEGF, which may be one mechanistic explanation to the decreased tumor growth and metastasis.
o Dabrosin, C, Chen, J, Wang, L, & Thompson, LU (2002). Flaxseed inhibits metastasis and decreases extracellular vascular endothelial growth factor in human breast cancer xenografts. Cancer Lett, 185(1), 31-7.Flaxseed, a rich source of mammalian lignan precursor secoisolariciresinol-diglycoside (S.D.) and α-linolenic acid (ALA), has been shown to be protective at the early promotion stage of carcinogenesis………..The effect of flaxseed oil may be related to its high ALA content. In conclusion, the S.D. in flaxseed appears to be beneficial throughout the promotional phase of carcinogenesis whereas the oil component is more effective at the stage when tumors have already been established.
o Thompson, LU, Rickard, S, Orcheson, L, and Seidl, M (1996). Flaxseed and its lignan and oil components reduce mammary tumor growth at a late stage of carcinogenesis. Carcinogenesis, 17, 1373-6.Flaxseed, the richest source of mammalian lignan precursors, such as secoisolariciresinol diglycoside (SD), has been shown over the short term to decrease some early markers of colon cancer risk. This study determined whether over the long term flaxseed still experts a colon cancer protective effect……… It is concluded that flaxseed has a colon cancer protective effect.
o Jenab, M & Thompson, LU (1996). The influence of flaxseed and lignans on colon carcinogenesis and glucuronidase activity. Carcinogensis, 17(6), 1343-8.Since flaxseed ingestion produces potentially anticarcinogenic lignans in the colon, this study determined whether flaxseed decreases the risk for colon carcinogenesis……… While these effects are not linearly related to the level of flaxseed fed, it suggests that flaxseed feeding may reduce the risk for colon carcinogenesis.
o Serraino, M, & Thompson, LU (1992). Flaxseed supplementation and early markers of colon carcinogenesis. Cancer Lett. 63(2), 159-65.BACKGROUND: Prostate cancer affects one of six men during their lifetime. Dietary factors are postulated to influence the development and progression of prostate cancer. Low-fat diets and flaxseed supplementation may offer potentially protective strategies……….
CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that flaxseed is safe and associated with biological alterations that may be protective for prostate cancer. Data also further support low-fat diets to manage serum cholesterol.o
Demark-Wahnefried, W. et al (2008). Flaxseed supplementation (not dietary fat restriction) reduces prostate cancer proliferation rates in men presurgery. Cancer Edidemiol Biomerkars Prev. 17(12), 3577-87.Objectives: Dietary fat and fiber affect hormonal levels and may influence cancer progression. Flaxseed is a rich source of lignan and omega-3 fatty acids and may thwart prostate cancer. The potential effects of flaxseed may be enhanced with concomitant fat restriction. We undertook a pilot study to explore whether a flaxseed-supplemented, fat-restricted diet could affect the biomarkers of prostatic neoplasia……….Conclusions. These pilot data suggest that a flaxseed-supplemented, fat-restricted diet may affect prostate cancer biology and associated biomarkers. Further study is needed to determine the benefit of this dietary regimen as either a complementary or preventive therapy.
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Demark-Wahnefried, W et al (2001).Pilot study of dietary fat restriction and flaxseed supplementation in men with prostate cancer before surgery: Exploring the effects on hormonal levels, prostate-specific antigen, and histopathologic features. Urology. 58(1), 47-52.Objectives: Dietary factors may influence the prostate and have an impact on prostatic growth and disease. A small number of studies have suggested that flaxseed-supplemented, fat-restricted diets may thwart prostate cancer growth in both animals and humans. Unknown, however, is the potential effect of such a diet on benign prostatic epithelium. Methods: We undertook a pilot study to explore whether a flaxseed-supplemented, fat-restricted diet affects the proliferation rates in benign epithelium. We also explored the effects on circulating levels of prostate-specific antigen (PSA), total testosterone, and cholesterol……….Conclusions: These pilot data suggest that a flaxseed-supplemented, fat-restricted diet may affect the biology of the prostate and associated biomarkers. A randomized controlled trial is needed to determine whether flaxseed supplementation, a low-fat diet, or a combination of the two regimens may be of use in controlling overall prostatic growth.
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Demark-Wahnefried, WE, Robertson, CN, Walther, PJ, Polascik, TJ, Paulson, DF, & Vollmer, RT (2004). Pilot study to explore effects of low-fat, flaxseed-supplemented diet on proliferation of benign prostatic epithelium and prostate-specific antigen. Urology. 63(5), 900-4.Functional foods and nutraceuticals are becoming popular alternatives to pharmacological treatments by providing health benefits and (or) reducing the risk of chronic diseases. Flaxseed is a rich source of 3 components with demonstrated cardioprotective effects: the omega-3 fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), dietary fibre, and phytoestrogen lignans. Multiple clinical dietary intervention trials report that consuming flaxseed daily can modestly reduce circulating total cholesterol (TC) by 6%-11% and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol by 9%-18% in normolipemic humans (individuals who have normal lipid levels) and by 5%-17% for TC and 4%-10% for LDL cholesterol in hypercholesterolemic patients, as well as lower various markers associated with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in humans. Evidence to date suggests that the dietary fibre and (or) lignan content of flaxseed provides the hypocholesterolemic action. The omega-3 ALA found in the flaxseed oil fraction also contributes to the antiatherogenic effects of flaxseed via anti-inflammatory and antiproliferative mechanisms. Dietary flaxseed may also protect against ischemic heart disease by improving vascular relaxation responses and by inhibiting the incidence of ventricular fibrillation.
o Bassett, CM, Rodriguez-Leyva, D & Pierce, GN (2009). Experimental and clinical research findings on the cardiovascular benefits of consuming flaxseed. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 34(5):965-74.BACKGROUND: Several clinical trials have investigated the effects of flaxseed and flaxseed-derived products (flaxseed oil or lignans) on blood lipids; however, the findings have been inconsistent. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to identify and quantify the effectiveness of flaxseed and its derivatives on blood lipid profiles……….
CONCLUSIONS: Flaxseed significantly reduced circulating total and LDL-cholesterol concentrations, but the changes were dependent on the type of intervention, sex, and initial lipid profiles of the subjects. Further studies are needed to determine the efficiency of flaxseed on lipid profiles in men and premenopausal women and to explore its potential benefits on other cardiometabolic risk factors and prevention of cardiovascular disease. o Pan, A et al (2009). Meta-analysis of the effects of flaxseed interventions on blood lipids. Am J Clin Nutr. 90(2):288-97.OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to investigate the extent to which the daily incorporation of approximately 30 g of flaxseed, a rich source of lignans, omega-3 fatty acids, and fiber, for a period of 3 months into the diet of Native American postmenopausal women positively affects their lipid profiles………..CONCLUSIONS: The results of the present study indicate that Native American postmenopausal women benefit from regular consumption of flaxseed by reducing their risk of cardiovascular disease as seen from lowered LDL-C (low density lipoprotein cholesterol) and total cholesterol levels.
o Patade, A et al. (2008). Flaxseed reduces total and LDL cholesterol concentrations in Native American postmenopausal women. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 17(3):355-66.Objective: Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) is the natural precursor of the cardioprotective long-chain omega-3 fatty acids. Available data indicate a possible beneficial effect of ALA on cardiovascular disease (CVD), but the response of various CVD risk factors to increased ALA intake is not well characterized. The purpose of the present study was to examine the effect of increased ALA intake on blood pressure in man. We used a prospective, two-group, parallel-arm design to examine the effect of a 12-week dietary supplementation with flaxseed oil, rich in ALA (8 grams per day), on blood pressure in middle-aged dyslipidaemic men………….Conclusions: We observed a hypotensive [blood pressure lowering] effect of ALA, which may constitute another mechanism accounting in part for the apparent cardioprotective effect of this omega-3 fatty acid.
o Paschos, GK, Magkos, M, Panagiotakos, DB, Votteas, V & Zampelas, A (2007). Dietary supplementation with flaxseed oil lowers blood pressure in dyslipidaemic patients. Eur J Clin Nutr, 61, 1201-6.The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of daily consumption of dietary flaxseed (as a source of linolenic acid (LNA) on plasma lipid concentrations in mildly hyperlipidemic patients…………CONCLUSIONS: Dietary flaxseed significantly improves lipid profile in hyperlipidemic patients and may favorably modify cardiovascular risk factors.
o Mandasescu, S, Mocanu, V, Dascalita, AM, Haliga, R, Nestian, I, & Stitt, PA (2005). Flaxseed supplementation in hyperlipidemic patients. Rev Med Chir Soc Nat Iasi, 109(3), 502-6.Flaxseed has recently gained attention in the area of cardiovascular disease primarily because it is the richest known source of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) and the phytoestrogen, lignans, as well as being a good source of soluble fiber. Human studies have shown that flaxseed can modestly reduce serum total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations, reduce postprandial glucose absorption, decrease some markers of inflammation, and raise serum levels of the omega-3 fatty acids, ALA and eicosapentaenoic acid.
o Bloedon, LT, & Szapary, PO (2004). Flaxseed and cardiovascular risk. Nutr Rev. 62(1), 18-27.
Flaxseed is one of the richest sources of lignans that are converted to enterolactone by the intestinal microflora. Enterolactone has been suggested to be the prime active compound mediating atherosclerosis-protective effects that were shown for flaxseed. The effects of a 1-wk intervention with 0.4 g of flaxseed/kg body weight per day on enterolactone plasma levels in seven healthy men revealed that all participants (PAs) responded with enhanced enterolactone plasma levels…………
In conclusion, the blood mononuclear cell proteome responds to dietary flaxseed intake with changes in a number of atherosclerosis-relevant proteins that may be taken as biomarkers of exposure and some of these changes observed can be attributed to the action of the lignan metabolite enterolactone. o Fuchs, D, Piller, R, Linseisen, J, Daniel, H, & Wenzel, U (2007). The human peripheral blood mononuclear cell proteome responds to a dietary flaxseed-intervention and proteins identified suggest a protective effect in atherosclerosis. Proteomics. 7(18), 3278-88.OBJECTIVE: To compare the effects of supplementing a low fat diet with an alpha-linolenic acid-rich (n-3) oil with a linoleic acid-rich (n-6) oil on platelet composition and function……….
CONCLUSION: This study provides further evidence that consumption of alpha-linolenic acid-rich oils may offer protective effects against cardiovascular disease over linoleic acid-rich oils via their ability to decrease the tendency of platelets to aggregate. o Allman, MA, Pena, MM, & Pang, D (1995). Supplementation with flaxseed oil versus sunflowerseed oil in healthy young men consuming a low fat diet: effects on platelet composition and function. Eur J Clin Nutr. 49(3), 169-78.